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Chapter 11. Managing file system permissions
File system permissions control the ability of user and group accounts to read, modify, and execute the contents of the files and to enter directories. Set permissions carefully to protect your data against unauthorized access.
11.1. Managing file permissions
Every file or directory has three levels of ownership:
- User owner (u).
- Group owner (g).
- Others (o).
Each level of ownership can be assigned the following permissions:
- Read (r).
- Write (w).
- Execute (x).
Note that the execute permission for a file allows you to execute that file. The execute permission for a directory allows you to access the contents of the directory, but not execute it.
When a new file or directory is created, the default set of permissions are automatically assigned to it. The default permissions for a file or directory are based on two factors:
- Base permission.
- The user file-creation mode mask (umask).
11.1.1. Base file permissions
Whenever a new file or directory is created, a base permission is automatically assigned to it. Base permissions for a file or directory can be expressed in symbolic or octal values.
Permission | Symbolic value | Octal value |
No permission | --- | 0 |
Execute | --x | 1 |
Write | -w- | 2 |
Write and execute | -wx | 3 |
Read | r-- | 4 |
Read and execute | r-x | 5 |
Read and write | rw- | 6 |
Read, write, execute | rwx | 7 |
The base permission for a directory is 777
(drwxrwxrwx
), which grants everyone the permissions to read, write, and execute. This means that the directory owner, the group, and others can list the contents of the directory, create, delete, and edit items within the directory, and descend into it.
Note that individual files within a directory can have their own permission that might prevent you from editing them, despite having unrestricted access to the directory.
The base permission for a file is 666
(-rw-rw-rw-
), which grants everyone the permissions to read and write. This means that the file owner, the group, and others can read and edit the file.
Example 11.1. Permissions for a file
If a file has the following permissions:
$ ls -l -rwxrw----. 1 sysadmins sysadmins 2 Mar 2 08:43 file
-
-
indicates it is a file. -
rwx
indicates that the file owner has permissions to read, write, and execute the file. -
rw-
indicates that the group has permissions to read and write, but not execute the file. -
---
indicates that other users have no permission to read, write, or execute the file. -
.
indicates that the SELinux security context is set for the file.
Example 11.2. Permissions for a directory
If a directory has the following permissions:
$ ls -dl directory drwxr-----. 1 sysadmins sysadmins 2 Mar 2 08:43 directory
-
d
indicates it is a directory. rwx
indicates that the directory owner has the permissions to read, write, and access the contents of the directory.As a directory owner, you can list the items (files, subdirectories) within the directory, access the content of those items, and modify them.
-
r-x
indicates that the group has permissions to read the content of the directory, but not write - create new entries or delete files. Thex
permission means that you can also access the directory using thecd
command. ---
indicates that other users have no permission to read, write, or access the contents of the directory.As someone who is not a user owner, or as group owner of the directory, you cannot list the items within the directory, access information about those items, or modify them.
-
.
indicates that the SELinux security context is set for the directory.
The base permission that is automatically assigned to a file or directory is not the default permission the file or directory ends up with. When you create a file or directory, the base permission is altered by the umask. The combination of the base permission and the umask creates the default permission for files and directories.
11.1.2. User file-creation mode mask
The user file-creation mode mask (umask) is variable that controls how file permissions are set for newly created files and directories. The umask automatically removes permissions from the base permission value to increase the overall security of a Linux system. The umask can be expressed in symbolic or octal values.
Permission | Symbolic value | Octal value |
Read, write, and execute | rwx | 0 |
Read and write | rw- | 1 |
Read and execute | r-x | 2 |
Read | r-- | 3 |
Write and execute | -wx | 4 |
Write | -w- | 5 |
Execute | --x | 6 |
No permissions | --- | 7 |
The default umask for both a standard user and for a root
user is 0022
.
The first digit of the umask represents special permissions (sticky bit, ). The last three digits of the umask represent the permissions that are removed from the user owner (u), group owner (g), and others (o) respectively.
Example 11.3. Applying the umask when creating a file
The following example illustrates how the umask with an octal value of 0137
is applied to the file with the base permission of 777
, to create the file with the default permission of 640
.
11.1.3. Default file permissions
The default permissions are set automatically for all newly created files and directories. The value of the default permissions is determined by applying the umask to the base permission.
Example 11.4. Default permissions for a directory
When a standard user or a root user creates a new directory, the umask is set to 022
(rwxr-xr-x
), and the base permissions for a directory are set to 777
(rwxrwxrwx
). This brings the default permissions to 755
(rwxr-xr-x
).
Symbolic value | Octal value | |
Base permission | rwxrwxrwx | 777 |
Umask | rwxr-xr-x | 022 |
Default permission | rwxr-xr-x | 755 |
This means that the directory owner can list the contents of the directory, create, delete, and edit items within the directory, and descend into it. The group and others can only list the contents of the directory and descend into it.
Example 11.5. Default permissions for a file
When a standard user or a root user creates a new file, the umask is set to 022
(rwxr-xr-x
), and the base permissions for a file are set to 666
(rw-rw-rw-
). This brings the default permissions to 644
(-rw-r—r--
).
Symbolic value | Octal value | |
Base permission | rw-rw-rw- | 666 |
Umask | rwxr-xr-x | 022 |
Default permission | rw-r—r-- | 644 |
This means that the file owner can read and edit the file, while the group and others can only read the file.
For security reasons, regular files cannot have execute permissions by default, even if the umask is set to 000
(rwxrwxrwx
). However, directories can be created with execute permissions.
11.1.4. Changing file permissions using symbolic values
You can use the chmod
utility with symbolic values (a combination letters and signs) to change file permissions for a file or directory.
You can assign the following permissions:
- Read (r)
- Write (w)
- Execute (x)
Permissions can be assigned to the following levels of ownership:
- User owner (u)
- Group owner (g)
- Other (o)
- All (a)
To add or remove permissions you can use the following signs:
-
+
to add the permissions on top of the existing permissions -
-
to remove the permissions from the existing permission -
=
to remove the existing permissions and explicitly define the new ones
Procedure
To change the permissions for a file or directory, use:
$ chmod <level><operation><permission> file-name
Replace
<level>
with the level of ownership you want to set the permissions for. Replace<operation>
with one of the signs. Replace<permission>
with the permissions you want to assign. Replace file-name with the name of the file or directory. For example, to grant everyone the permissions to read, write, and execute (rwx
)my-script.sh
, use thechmod a=rwx my-script.sh
command.See Base file permissions for more details.
Verification
To see the permissions for a particular file, use:
$ ls -l file-name
Replace file-name with the name of the file.
To see the permissions for a particular directory, use:
$ ls -dl directory-name
Replace directory-name with the name of the directory.
To see the permissions for all the files within a particular directory, use:
$ ls -l directory-name
Replace directory-name with the name of the directory.
Example 11.6. Changing permissions for files and directories
To change file permissions for
my-file.txt
from-rw-rw-r--
to-rw------
, use:Display the current permissions for
my-file.txt
:$ ls -l my-file.txt -rw-rw-r--. 1 username username 0 Feb 24 17:56 my-file.txt
Remove the permissions to read, write, and execute (
rwx
) the file from group owner (g
) and others (o
):$ chmod go= my-file.txt
Note that any permission that is not specified after the equals sign (
=
) is automatically prohibited.Verify that the permissions for
my-file.txt
were set correctly:$ ls -l my-file.txt -rw-------. 1 username username 0 Feb 24 17:56 my-file.txt
To change file permissions for
my-directory
fromdrwxrwx---
todrwxrwxr-x
, use:Display the current permissions for
my-directory
:$ ls -dl my-directory drwxrwx---. 2 username username 4096 Feb 24 18:12 my-directory
Add the read and execute (
r-x
) access for all users (a
):$ chmod o+rx my-directory
Verify that the permissions for
my-directory
and its content were set correctly:$ ls -dl my-directory drwxrwxr-x. 2 username username 4096 Feb 24 18:12 my-directory
11.1.5. Changing file permissions using octal values
You can use the chmod
utility with octal values (numbers) to change file permissions for a file or directory.
Procedure
To change the file permissions for an existing file or directory, use:
$ chmod octal_value file-name
Replace file-name with the name of the file or directory. Replace octal_value with an octal value. See Base file permissions for more details.
11.2. Managing the Access Control List
Each file and directory can only have one user owner and one group owner at a time. If you want to grant a user permissions to access specific files or directories that belong to a different user or group while keeping other files and directories private, you can utilize Linux Access Control Lists (ACLs).
11.2.1. Displaying the current Access Control List
You can use the getfacl
utility to display the current ACL.
Procedure
To display the current ACL for a particular file or directory, use:
$ getfacl file-name
Replace file-name with the name of the file or directory.
11.2.2. Setting the Access Control List
You can use the setfacl
utility to set the ACL for a file or directory.
Prerequisites
-
root
access.
Procedure
- To set the ACL for a file or directory, use:
# setfacl -m u:username:symbolic_value file-name
Replace username with the name of the user, symbolic_value with a symbolic value, and file-name with the name of the file or directory. For more information see the setfacl
man page.
Example 11.7. Modifying permissions for a group project
The following example describes how to modify permissions for the group-project
file owned by the root
user that belongs to the root
group so that this file is:
- Not executable by anyone.
-
The user
andrew
has therw-
permissions. -
The user
susan
has the---
permissions. -
Other users have the
r--
permissions.
Procedure
# setfacl -m u:andrew:rw- group-project # setfacl -m u:susan:--- group-project
Verification
To verify that the user
andrew
has therw-
permission, the usersusan
has the---
permission, and other users have ther--
permission, use:$ getfacl group-project
The output returns:
# file: group-project # owner: root # group: root user:andrew:rw- user:susan:--- group::r-- mask::rw- other::r--
11.3. Managing the umask
You can use the umask
utility to display, set, or change the current or default value of the umask.
11.3.1. Displaying the current value of the umask
You can use the umask
utility to display the current value of the umask in symbolic or octal mode.
Procedure
To display the current value of the umask in symbolic mode, use:
$ umask -S
To display the current value of the umask in the octal mode, use:
$ umask
NoteWhen displaying the umask in octal mode, you may notice it displayed as a four digit number (
0002
or0022
). The first digit of the umask represents a special bit (sticky bit, SGID bit, or SUID bit). If the first digit is set to0
, the special bit is not set.
11.3.2. Displaying the default bash umask
There are a number of shells you can use, such as bash
, ksh
, zsh
and tcsh
. Those shells can behave as login or non-login shells. You can invoke the login shell by opening a native or a GUI terminal.
To determine whether you are executing a command in a login or a non-login shell, use the echo $0
command.
Example 11.8. Determining if you are working in a login or a non-login bash shell
If the output of the
echo $0
command returnsbash
, you are executing the command in a non-login shell.$ echo $0 bash
The default umask for the non-login shell is set in the
/etc/bashrc
configuration file.If the output of the
echo $0
command returns-bash
, you are executing the command in a login shell.# echo $0 -bash
The default umask for the login shell is set in the
/etc/login.defs
configuration file.
Procedure
To display the default
bash
umask for the non-login shell, use:$ grep umask /etc/bashrc
The output returns:
# By default, we want umask to get set. This sets it for non-login shell. umask 002 umask 022
To display the default
bash
umask for the login shell, use:$ grep "UMASK" /etc/login.defs
The output returns:
# UMASK is also used by useradd(8) and newusers(8) to set the mode for new UMASK 022 # If HOME_MODE is not set, the value of UMASK is used to create the mode.
11.3.3. Setting the umask using symbolic values
You can use the umask
utility with symbolic values (a combination letters and signs) to set the umask for the current shell session
You can assign the following permissions:
- Read (r)
- Write (w)
- Execute (x)
Permissions can be assigned to the following levels of ownership:
- User owner (u)
- Group owner (g)
- Other (o)
- All (a)
To add or remove permissions you can use the following signs:
-
+
to add the permissions on top of the existing permissions -
-
to remove the permissions from the existing permission =
to remove the existing permissions and explicitly define the new onesNoteAny permission that is not specified after the equals sign (
=
) is automatically prohibited.
Procedure
To set the umask for the current shell session, use:
$ umask -S <level><operation><permission>
Replace
<level>
with the level of ownership you want to set the umask for. Replace<operation>
with one of the signs. Replace<permission>
with the permissions you want to assign. For example, to set the umask tou=rwx,g=rwx,o=rwx
, useumask -S a=rwx
.See User file-creation mode for more details.
NoteThe umask is only valid for the current shell session.
11.3.4. Setting the umask using octal values
You can use the umask
utility with octal values (numbers) to set the umask for the current shell session.
Procedure
To set the umask for the current shell session, use:
$ umask octal_value
Replace octal_value with an octal value. See User file-creation mode mask for more details.
NoteThe umask is only valid for the current shell session.
11.3.5. Changing the default umask for the non-login shell
You can change the default bash
umask for standard users by modifying the /etc/bashrc
file.
Prerequisites
-
root
access
Procedure
-
As
root
, open the/etc/bashrc
file in the editor. Modify the following sections to set a new default
bash
umask:if [ $UID -gt 199 ] && [ “id -gn” = “id -un” ]; then umask 002 else umask 022 fi
Replace the default octal value of the umask (
002
) with another octal value. See User file-creation mode mask for more details.- Save the changes and exit the editor.
11.3.6. Changing the default umask for the login shell
You can change the default bash
umask for the root
user by modifying the /etc/login.defs
file.
Prerequisites
-
root
access
Procedure
-
As
root
, open the/etc/login.defs
file in the editor. Modify the following sections to set a new default
bash
umask:# Default initial "umask" value used by login(1) on non-PAM enabled systems. # Default "umask" value for pam_umask(8) on PAM enabled systems. # UMASK is also used by useradd(8) and newusers(8) to set the mode for new # home directories if HOME_MODE is not set. # 022 is the default value, but 027, or even 077, could be considered # for increased privacy. There is no One True Answer here: each sysadmin # must make up their mind. UMASK 022
Replace the default octal value of the umask (
022
) with another octal value. See User file-creation mode mask for more details.- Save the changes and exit the editor.
11.3.7. Changing the default umask for a specific user
You can change the default umask for a specific user by modifying the .bashrc
for that user.
Procedure
Append the line that specifies the octal value of the umask into the
.bashrc
file for the particular user.$ echo 'umask octal_value' >> /home/username/.bashrc
Replace octal_value with an octal value and replace username with the name of the user. See User file-creation mode mask for more details.
11.3.8. Setting default permissions for newly created home directories
You can change the permission modes for home directories of newly created users by modifying the /etc/login.defs
file.
Procedure
-
As
root
, open the/etc/login.defs
file in the editor. Modify the following section to set a new default HOME_MODE:
# HOME_MODE is used by useradd(8) and newusers(8) to set the mode for new # home directories. # If HOME_MODE is not set, the value of UMASK is used to create the mode. HOME_MODE 0700
Replace the default octal value (
0700
) with another octal value. The selected mode will be used to create the permissions for the home directory.- If HOME_MODE is set, save the changes and exit the editor.
If HOME_MODE is not set, modify the UMASK to set the mode for the newly created home directories:
# Default initial "umask" value used by login(1) on non-PAM enabled systems. # Default "umask" value for pam_umask(8) on PAM enabled systems. # UMASK is also used by useradd(8) and newusers(8) to set the mode for new # home directories if HOME_MODE is not set. # 022 is the default value, but 027, or even 077, could be considered # for increased privacy. There is no One True Answer here: each sysadmin # must make up their mind. UMASK 022
Replace the default octal value (
022
) with another octal value. See User file-creation mode mask for more details.- Save the changes and exit the editor.