Architecture

As a cluster administrator, you can use the OpenShift Container Platform installation program to install and deploy a cluster on:

The control plane manages the worker nodes and the pods in your cluster. You can configure nodes with the use of machine config pools (MCPs). MCPs are groups of machines, such as control plane components or user workloads, that are based on the resources that they handle. OpenShift Container Platform assigns different roles to hosts. These roles define the function of a machine in a cluster. The cluster contains definitions for the standard control plane and worker role types.

You can use Operators to package, deploy, and manage services on the control plane. Operators are important components in OpenShift Container Platform because they provide the following services:

As a developer, you can use different tools, methods, and formats to develop your containerized application based on your unique requirements, for example:

You can also create a Kubernetes manifest and store it in a Git repository. Kubernetes works on basic units called pods. A pod is a single instance of a running process in your cluster. Pods can contain one or more containers. You can create a service by grouping a set of pods and their access policies. Services provide permanent internal IP addresses and host names for other applications to use as pods are created and destroyed. Kubernetes defines workloads based on the type of your application.

As a cluster administrator, you can perform the following Red Hat Enterprise Linux CoreOS (RHCOS) tasks:

The OpenShift Container Platform installation program creates the Ignition configuration files that you need to deploy your cluster. Red Hat Enterprise Linux CoreOS (RHCOS) uses Ignition during the initial configuration to perform common disk tasks, such as partitioning, formatting, writing files, and configuring users. During the first boot, Ignition reads its configuration from the installation media or the location that you specify and applies the configuration to the machines.

You can learn how Ignition works, the process for a Red Hat Enterprise Linux CoreOS (RHCOS) machine in an OpenShift Container Platform cluster, view Ignition configuration files, and change Ignition configuration after an installation.

You can use the continuous integration/continuous delivery (CI/CD) methodology to automate all the stages of application development. You can also use GitOps methodology to create repeatable and predictable processes for managing and recreating OpenShift Container Platform clusters and applications.

You can use ArgoCD, which is a declarative, GitOps continuous delivery tool for cluster resources.

You can use admission plug-ins to regulate how OpenShift Container Platform functions. After a resource request is authenticated and authorized, admission plug-ins intercept the resource request to the master API to validate resource requests and to ensure that scaling policies are adhered to. Admission plug-ins are used to enforce security policies, resource limitations, or configuration requirements.

OpenShift Container Platform is a platform for developing and running containerized applications. It is designed to allow applications and the data centers that support them to expand from just a few machines and applications to thousands of machines that serve millions of clients.

With its foundation in Kubernetes, OpenShift Container Platform incorporates the same technology that serves as the engine for massive telecommunications, streaming video, gaming, banking, and other applications. Its implementation in open Red Hat technologies lets you extend your containerized applications beyond a single cloud to on-premise and multi-cloud environments.

2.1.3. OpenShift Container Platform overview

OpenShift Container Platform provides enterprise-ready enhancements to Kubernetes, including the following enhancements:

• Hybrid cloud deployments. You can deploy OpenShift Container Platform clusters to a variety of public cloud platforms or in your data center.
• Integrated Red Hat technology. Major components in OpenShift Container Platform come from Red Hat Enterprise Linux (RHEL) and related Red Hat technologies. OpenShift Container Platform benefits from the intense testing and certification initiatives for Red Hat’s enterprise quality software.
• Open source development model. Development is completed in the open, and the source code is available from public software repositories. This open collaboration fosters rapid innovation and development.

Although Kubernetes excels at managing your applications, it does not specify or manage platform-level requirements or deployment processes. Powerful and flexible platform management tools and processes are important benefits that OpenShift Container Platform 4.6 offers. The following sections describe some unique features and benefits of OpenShift Container Platform.

2.1.3.1. Custom operating system

OpenShift Container Platform uses Red Hat Enterprise Linux CoreOS (RHCOS), a container-oriented operating system that is specifically designed for running containerized applications from OpenShift Container Platform and works with new tools to provide fast installation, Operator-based management, and simplified upgrades.

RHCOS includes:

• Ignition, which OpenShift Container Platform uses as a firstboot system configuration for initially bringing up and configuring machines.
• CRI-O, a Kubernetes native container runtime implementation that integrates closely with the operating system to deliver an efficient and optimized Kubernetes experience. CRI-O provides facilities for running, stopping, and restarting containers. It fully replaces the Docker Container Engine, which was used in OpenShift Container Platform 3.
• Kubelet, the primary node agent for Kubernetes that is responsible for launching and monitoring containers.

In OpenShift Container Platform 4.6, you must use RHCOS for all control plane machines, but you can use Red Hat Enterprise Linux (RHEL) as the operating system for compute machines, which are also known as worker machines. If you choose to use RHEL workers, you must perform more system maintenance than if you use RHCOS for all of the cluster machines.

2.1.3.2. Simplified installation and update process

With OpenShift Container Platform 4.6, if you have an account with the right permissions, you can deploy a production cluster in supported clouds by running a single command and providing a few values. You can also customize your cloud installation or install your cluster in your data center if you use a supported platform.

For clusters that use RHCOS for all machines, updating, or upgrading, OpenShift Container Platform is a simple, highly-automated process. Because OpenShift Container Platform completely controls the systems and services that run on each machine, including the operating system itself, from a central control plane, upgrades are designed to become automatic events. If your cluster contains RHEL worker machines, the control plane benefits from the streamlined update process, but you must perform more tasks to upgrade the RHEL machines.

2.1.3.3. Other key features

Operators are both the fundamental unit of the OpenShift Container Platform 4.6 code base and a convenient way to deploy applications and software components for your applications to use. In OpenShift Container Platform, Operators serve as the platform foundation and remove the need for manual upgrades of operating systems and control plane applications. OpenShift Container Platform Operators such as the Cluster Version Operator and Machine Config Operator allow simplified, cluster-wide management of those critical components.

Operator Lifecycle Manager (OLM) and the OperatorHub provide facilities for storing and distributing Operators to people developing and deploying applications.

The Red Hat Quay Container Registry is a Quay.io container registry that serves most of the container images and Operators to OpenShift Container Platform clusters. Quay.io is a public registry version of Red Hat Quay that stores millions of images and tags.

Other enhancements to Kubernetes in OpenShift Container Platform include improvements in software defined networking (SDN), authentication, log aggregation, monitoring, and routing. OpenShift Container Platform also offers a comprehensive web console and the custom OpenShift CLI (oc) interface.

2.1.3.4. OpenShift Container Platform lifecycle

The following figure illustrates the basic OpenShift Container Platform lifecycle:

• Creating an OpenShift Container Platform cluster
• Managing the cluster
• Developing and deploying applications
• Scaling up applications

Figure 2.1. High level OpenShift Container Platform overview

The OpenShift Container Platform installation program offers you flexibility. You can use the installation program to deploy a cluster on infrastructure that the installation program provisions and the cluster maintains or deploy a cluster on infrastructure that you prepare and maintain.

These two basic types of OpenShift Container Platform clusters are frequently called installer-provisioned infrastructure clusters and user-provisioned infrastructure clusters.

Both types of clusters have the following characteristics:

You use the same installation program to deploy both types of clusters. The main assets generated by the installation program are the Ignition config files for the bootstrap, master, and worker machines. With these three configurations and correctly configured infrastructure, you can start an OpenShift Container Platform cluster.

The OpenShift Container Platform installation program uses a set of targets and dependencies to manage cluster installation. The installation program has a set of targets that it must achieve, and each target has a set of dependencies. Because each target is only concerned with its own dependencies, the installation program can act to achieve multiple targets in parallel. The ultimate target is a running cluster. By meeting dependencies instead of running commands, the installation program is able to recognize and use existing components instead of running the commands to create them again.

The following diagram shows a subset of the installation targets and dependencies:

Figure 3.1. OpenShift Container Platform installation targets and dependencies

After installation, each cluster machine uses Red Hat Enterprise Linux CoreOS (RHCOS) as the operating system. RHCOS is the immutable container host version of Red Hat Enterprise Linux (RHEL) and features a RHEL kernel with SELinux enabled by default. It includes the kubelet, which is the Kubernetes node agent, and the CRI-O container runtime, which is optimized for Kubernetes.

Every control plane machine in an OpenShift Container Platform 4.6 cluster must use RHCOS, which includes a critical first-boot provisioning tool called Ignition. This tool enables the cluster to configure the machines. Operating system updates are delivered as an Atomic OSTree repository that is embedded in a container image that is rolled out across the cluster by an Operator. Actual operating system changes are made in-place on each machine as an atomic operation by using rpm-ostree. Together, these technologies enable OpenShift Container Platform to manage the operating system like it manages any other application on the cluster, via in-place upgrades that keep the entire platform up-to-date. These in-place updates can reduce the burden on operations teams.

If you use RHCOS as the operating system for all cluster machines, the cluster manages all aspects of its components and machines, including the operating system. Because of this, only the installation program and the Machine Config Operator can change machines. The installation program uses Ignition config files to set the exact state of each machine, and the Machine Config Operator completes more changes to the machines, such as the application of new certificates or keys, after installation.

3.1.2. Installation process

When you install an OpenShift Container Platform cluster, you download the installation program from the appropriate Infrastructure Provider page on the Red Hat OpenShift Cluster Manager site. This site manages:

• REST API for accounts
• Registry tokens, which are the pull secrets that you use to obtain the required components
• Cluster registration, which associates the cluster identity to your Red Hat account to facilitate the gathering of usage metrics

In OpenShift Container Platform 4.6, the installation program is a Go binary file that performs a series of file transformations on a set of assets. The way you interact with the installation program differs depending on your installation type.

• For clusters with installer-provisioned infrastructure, you delegate the infrastructure bootstrapping and provisioning to the installation program instead of doing it yourself. The installation program creates all of the networking, machines, and operating systems that are required to support the cluster.
• If you provision and manage the infrastructure for your cluster, you must provide all of the cluster infrastructure and resources, including the bootstrap machine, networking, load balancing, storage, and individual cluster machines.

You use three sets of files during installation: an installation configuration file that is named install-config.yaml, Kubernetes manifests, and Ignition config files for your machine types.

Important

It is possible to modify Kubernetes and the Ignition config files that control the underlying RHCOS operating system during installation. However, no validation is available to confirm the suitability of any modifications that you make to these objects. If you modify these objects, you might render your cluster non-functional. Because of this risk, modifying Kubernetes and Ignition config files is not supported unless you are following documented procedures or are instructed to do so by Red Hat support.

The installation configuration file is transformed into Kubernetes manifests, and then the manifests are wrapped into Ignition config files. The installation program uses these Ignition config files to create the cluster.

The installation configuration files are all pruned when you run the installation program, so be sure to back up all configuration files that you want to use again.

Important

You cannot modify the parameters that you set during installation, but you can modify many cluster attributes after installation.

The installation process with installer-provisioned infrastructure

The default installation type uses installer-provisioned infrastructure. By default, the installation program acts as an installation wizard, prompting you for values that it cannot determine on its own and providing reasonable default values for the remaining parameters. You can also customize the installation process to support advanced infrastructure scenarios. The installation program provisions the underlying infrastructure for the cluster.

You can install either a standard cluster or a customized cluster. With a standard cluster, you provide minimum details that are required to install the cluster. With a customized cluster, you can specify more details about the platform, such as the number of machines that the control plane uses, the type of virtual machine that the cluster deploys, or the CIDR range for the Kubernetes service network.

If possible, use this feature to avoid having to provision and maintain the cluster infrastructure. In all other environments, you use the installation program to generate the assets that you require to provision your cluster infrastructure.

With installer-provisioned infrastructure clusters, OpenShift Container Platform manages all aspects of the cluster, including the operating system itself. Each machine boots with a configuration that references resources hosted in the cluster that it joins. This configuration allows the cluster to manage itself as updates are applied.

The installation process with user-provisioned infrastructure

You can also install OpenShift Container Platform on infrastructure that you provide. You use the installation program to generate the assets that you require to provision the cluster infrastructure, create the cluster infrastructure, and then deploy the cluster to the infrastructure that you provided.

If you do not use infrastructure that the installation program provisioned, you must manage and maintain the cluster resources yourself, including:

• The underlying infrastructure for the control plane and compute machines that make up the cluster
• Load balancers
• Cluster networking, including the DNS records and required subnets
• Storage for the cluster infrastructure and applications

If your cluster uses user-provisioned infrastructure, you have the option of adding RHEL compute machines to your cluster.

Installation process details

Because each machine in the cluster requires information about the cluster when it is provisioned, OpenShift Container Platform uses a temporary bootstrap machine during initial configuration to provide the required information to the permanent control plane. It boots by using an Ignition config file that describes how to create the cluster. The bootstrap machine creates the master machines that make up the control plane. The control plane machines then create the compute machines, which are also known as worker machines. The following figure illustrates this process:

Figure 3.2. Creating the bootstrap, control plane, and compute machines

After the cluster machines initialize, the bootstrap machine is destroyed. All clusters use the bootstrap process to initialize the cluster, but if you provision the infrastructure for your cluster, you must complete many of the steps manually.

Important

The Ignition config files that the installation program generates contain certificates that expire after 24 hours, which are then renewed at that time. If the cluster is shut down before renewing the certificates and the cluster is later restarted after the 24 hours have elapsed, the cluster automatically recovers the expired certificates. The exception is that you must manually approve the pending node-bootstrapper certificate signing requests (CSRs) to recover kubelet certificates. See the documentation for Recovering from expired control plane certificates for more information.

Bootstrapping a cluster involves the following steps:

1. The bootstrap machine boots and starts hosting the remote resources required for the control plane machines to boot. (Requires manual intervention if you provision the infrastructure)
2. The bootstrap machine starts a single-node etcd cluster and a temporary Kubernetes control plane.
3. The control plane machines fetch the remote resources from the bootstrap machine and finish booting. (Requires manual intervention if you provision the infrastructure)
4. The temporary control plane schedules the production control plane to the production control plane machines.
5. The Cluster Version Operator (CVO) comes online and installs the etcd Operator. The etcd Operator scales up etcd on all control plane nodes.
6. The temporary control plane shuts down and passes control to the production control plane.
7. The bootstrap machine injects OpenShift Container Platform components into the production control plane.
8. The installation program shuts down the bootstrap machine. (Requires manual intervention if you provision the infrastructure)
9. The control plane sets up the compute nodes.
10. The control plane installs additional services in the form of a set of Operators.

The result of this bootstrapping process is a fully running OpenShift Container Platform cluster. The cluster then downloads and configures remaining components needed for the day-to-day operation, including the creation of compute machines in supported environments.

Installation scope

The scope of the OpenShift Container Platform installation program is intentionally narrow. It is designed for simplicity and ensured success. You can complete many more configuration tasks after installation completes.

Additional resources

• See Available cluster customizations for details about OpenShift Container Platform configuration resources.

The OpenShift Update Service (OSUS) provides over-the-air updates to OpenShift Container Platform, including Red Hat Enterprise Linux CoreOS (RHCOS). It provides a graph, or diagram, that contains the vertices of component Operators and the edges that connect them. The edges in the graph show which versions you can safely update to. The vertices are update payloads that specify the intended state of the managed cluster components.

The Cluster Version Operator (CVO) in your cluster checks with the OpenShift Update Service to see the valid updates and update paths based on current component versions and information in the graph. When you request an update, the CVO uses the release image for that update to update your cluster. The release artifacts are hosted in Quay as container images.

To allow the OpenShift Update Service to provide only compatible updates, a release verification pipeline drives automation. Each release artifact is verified for compatibility with supported cloud platforms and system architectures, as well as other component packages. After the pipeline confirms the suitability of a release, the OpenShift Update Service notifies you that it is available.

Two controllers run during continuous update mode. The first controller continuously updates the payload manifests, applies the manifests to the cluster, and outputs the controlled rollout status of the Operators to indicate whether they are available, upgrading, or failed. The second controller polls the OpenShift Update Service to determine if updates are available.

During the update process, the Machine Config Operator (MCO) applies the new configuration to your cluster machines. The MCO cordons the number of nodes as specified by the maxUnavailable field on the machine configuration pool and marks them as unavailable. By default, this value is set to 1. The MCO then applies the new configuration and reboots the machine.

If you use Red Hat Enterprise Linux (RHEL) machines as workers, the MCO does not update the kubelet because you must update the OpenShift API on the machines first.

With the specification for the new version applied to the old kubelet, the RHEL machine cannot return to the Ready state. You cannot complete the update until the machines are available. However, the maximum number of unavailable nodes is set to ensure that normal cluster operations can continue with that number of machines out of service.

The OpenShift Update Service is composed of an Operator and one or more application instances.

The management state of an Operator determines whether an Operator is actively managing the resources for its related component in the cluster as designed. If an Operator is set to an unmanaged state, it does not respond to changes in configuration nor does it receive updates.

While this can be helpful in non-production clusters or during debugging, Operators in an unmanaged state are unsupported and the cluster administrator assumes full control of the individual component configurations and upgrades.

An Operator can be set to an unmanaged state using the following methods:

The control plane, which is composed of control plane machines (also known as the master machines), manages the OpenShift Container Platform cluster. The control plane machines manage workloads on the compute machines, which are also known as worker machines. The cluster itself manages all upgrades to the machines by the actions of the Cluster Version Operator, the Machine Config Operator, and a set of individual Operators.

You can approach application development with containers in many ways, and different approaches might be more appropriate for different situations. To illustrate some of this variety, the series of approaches that is presented starts with developing a single container and ultimately deploys that container as a mission-critical application for a large enterprise. These approaches show different tools, formats, and methods that you can employ with containerized application development. This topic describes:

You have an idea for an application and you want to containerize it.

First you require a tool for building a container, like buildah or docker, and a file that describes what goes in your container, which is typically a Dockerfile.

Next, you require a location to push the resulting container image so you can pull it to run anywhere you want it to run. This location is a container registry.

Some examples of each of these components are installed by default on most Linux operating systems, except for the Dockerfile, which you provide yourself.

The following diagram displays the process of building and pushing an image:

Figure 5.1. Create a simple containerized application and push it to a registry

If you use a computer that runs Red Hat Enterprise Linux (RHEL) as the operating system, the process of creating a containerized application requires the following steps:

For more details on the process of building container images, pushing them to registries, and running them, see Custom image builds with Buildah.

5.2.2. Base image options

The base image you choose to build your application on contains a set of software that resembles a Linux system to your application. When you build your own image, your software is placed into that file system and sees that file system as though it were looking at its operating system. Choosing this base image has major impact on how secure, efficient and upgradeable your container is in the future.

Red Hat provides a new set of base images referred to as Red Hat Universal Base Images (UBI). These images are based on Red Hat Enterprise Linux and are similar to base images that Red Hat has offered in the past, with one major difference: they are freely redistributable without a Red Hat subscription. As a result, you can build your application on UBI images without having to worry about how they are shared or the need to create different images for different environments.

These UBI images have standard, init, and minimal versions. You can also use the Red Hat Software Collections images as a foundation for applications that rely on specific runtime environments such as Node.js, Perl, or Python. Special versions of some of these runtime base images referred to as Source-to-image (S2I) images. With S2I images, you can insert your code into a base image environment that is ready to run that code.

S2I images are available for you to use directly from the OpenShift Container Platform web UI by selecting Catalog → Developer Catalog, as shown in the following figure:

Figure 5.2. Choose S2I base images for apps that need specific runtimes

While the container image is the basic building block for a containerized application, more information is required to manage and deploy that application in a Kubernetes environment such as OpenShift Container Platform. The typical next steps after you create an image are to:

Packaging and deploying your application as an Operator might be preferred if you make your application available for others to run. As noted earlier, Operators add a lifecycle component to your application that acknowledges that the job of running an application is not complete as soon as it is installed.

When you create an application as an Operator, you can build in your own knowledge of how to run and maintain the application. You can build in features for upgrading the application, backing it up, scaling it, or keeping track of its state. If you configure the application correctly, maintenance tasks, like updating the Operator, can happen automatically and invisibly to the Operator’s users.

An example of a useful Operator is one that is set up to automatically back up data at particular times. Having an Operator manage an application’s backup at set times can save a system administrator from remembering to do it.

Any application maintenance that has traditionally been completed manually, like backing up data or rotating certificates, can be completed automatically with an Operator.

Red Hat Enterprise Linux CoreOS (RHCOS) represents the next generation of single-purpose container operating system technology by providing the quality standards of Red Hat Enterprise Linux (RHEL) with automated, remote upgrade features.

RHCOS is supported only as a component of OpenShift Container Platform 4.6 for all OpenShift Container Platform machines. RHCOS is the only supported operating system for OpenShift Container Platform control plane, or master, machines. While RHCOS is the default operating system for all cluster machines, you can create compute machines, which are also known as worker machines, that use RHEL as their operating system. There are two general ways RHCOS is deployed in OpenShift Container Platform 4.6:

To see the Ignition config file used to deploy the bootstrap machine, run the following command:

$ openshift-install create ignition-configs --dir $HOME/testconfig

After you answer a few questions, the bootstrap.ign, master.ign, and worker.ign files appear in the directory you entered.

To see the contents of the bootstrap.ign file, pipe it through the jq filter. Here’s a snippet from that file:

$ cat $HOME/testconfig/bootstrap.ign | jq
\\{
  "ignition": \\{
        "config": \\{},
  "storage": \\{
        "files": [
          \\{
            "filesystem": "root",
            "path": "/etc/motd",
            "user": \\{
              "name": "root"
            },
            "append": true,
            "contents": \\{
              "source": "data:text/plain;charset=utf-8;base64,VGhpcyBpcyB0aGUgYm9vdHN0cmFwIG5vZGU7IGl0IHdpbGwgYmUgZGVzdHJveWVkIHdoZW4gdGhlIG1hc3RlciBpcyBmdWxseSB1cC4KClRoZSBwcmltYXJ5IHNlcnZpY2UgaXMgImJvb3RrdWJlLnNlcnZpY2UiLiBUbyB3YXRjaCBpdHMgc3RhdHVzLCBydW4gZS5nLgoKICBqb3VybmFsY3RsIC1iIC1mIC11IGJvb3RrdWJlLnNlcnZpY2UK",

To decode the contents of a file listed in the bootstrap.ign file, pipe the base64-encoded data string representing the contents of that file to the base64 -d command. Here’s an example using the contents of the /etc/motd file added to the bootstrap machine from the output shown above:

$ echo VGhpcyBpcyB0aGUgYm9vdHN0cmFwIG5vZGU7IGl0IHdpbGwgYmUgZGVzdHJveWVkIHdoZW4gdGhlIG1hc3RlciBpcyBmdWxseSB1cC4KClRoZSBwcmltYXJ5IHNlcnZpY2UgaXMgImJvb3RrdWJlLnNlcnZpY2UiLiBUbyB3YXRjaCBpdHMgc3RhdHVzLCBydW4gZS5nLgoKICBqb3VybmFsY3RsIC1iIC1mIC11IGJvb3RrdWJlLnNlcnZpY2UK | base64 --decode

This is the bootstrap machine; it will be destroyed when the master is fully up.

The primary service is "bootkube.service". To watch its status, run, e.g.:

journalctl -b -f -u bootkube.service

Repeat those commands on the master.ign and worker.ign files to see the source of Ignition config files for each of those machine types.  You should see a line like the following for the worker.ign, identifying how it gets its Ignition config from the bootstrap machine:

"source": "https://api.myign.develcluster.example.com:22623/config/worker",

Here are a few things you can learn from the bootstrap.ign file:

Machine config pools manage a cluster of nodes and their corresponding machine configs. Machine configs contain configuration information for a cluster. To list all machine config pools that are known:

$ oc get machineconfigpools

NAME   CONFIG                                  UPDATED UPDATING DEGRADED
master master-1638c1aea398413bb918e76632f20799 False   False    False
worker worker-2feef4f8288936489a5a832ca8efe953 False   False    False

To list all machine configs:

$ oc get machineconfig

NAME                                      GENERATEDBYCONTROLLER   IGNITIONVERSION   CREATED   OSIMAGEURL

00-master                                 4.0.0-0.150.0.0-dirty   3.1.0             16m
00-master-ssh                             4.0.0-0.150.0.0-dirty                     16m
00-worker                                 4.0.0-0.150.0.0-dirty   3.1.0             16m
00-worker-ssh                             4.0.0-0.150.0.0-dirty                     16m
01-master-kubelet                         4.0.0-0.150.0.0-dirty   3.1.0             16m
01-worker-kubelet                         4.0.0-0.150.0.0-dirty   3.1.0             16m
master-1638c1aea398413bb918e76632f20799   4.0.0-0.150.0.0-dirty   3.1.0             16m
worker-2feef4f8288936489a5a832ca8efe953   4.0.0-0.150.0.0-dirty   3.1.0             16m

The Machine Config Operator acts somewhat differently than Ignition when it comes to applying these machine configs. The machine configs are read in order (from 00* to 99*). Labels inside the machine configs identify the type of node each is for (master or worker). If the same file appears in multiple machine config files, the last one wins. So, for example, any file that appears in a 99* file would replace the same file that appeared in a 00* file. The input MachineConfig objects are unioned into a "rendered" MachineConfig object, which will be used as a target by the operator and is the value you can see in the machine config pool.

To see what files are being managed from a machine config, look for "Path:" inside a particular MachineConfig object. For example:

$ oc describe machineconfigs 01-worker-container-runtime | grep Path:

            Path:            /etc/containers/registries.conf
            Path:            /etc/containers/storage.conf
            Path:            /etc/crio/crio.conf

Be sure to give the machine config file a later name (such as 10-worker-container-runtime). Keep in mind that the content of each file is in URL-style data. Then apply the new machine config to the cluster.

Continuous integration is an automation process for developers. Code changes to an application are regularly built, tested, and merged to a shared repository.

Continuous delivery and continuous deployment are closely related concepts that are sometimes used interchangeably and refer to automation of the pipeline. Continuous delivery uses automation to ensure that a developer’s changes to an application are tested and sent to a repository, where an operations team can deploy them to a production environment. Continuous deployment enables the release of changes, starting from the repository and ending in production. Continuous deployment speeds up application delivery and prevents the operations team from getting overloaded.

GitOps is a set of practices that use Git pull requests to manage infrastructure and application configurations. The Git repository in GitOps is the only source of truth for system and application configuration. The repository contains the entire state of the system so that the trail of changes to the system state are visible and auditable. GitOps enables you to implement a DevOps methodology.

You can use GitOps tooling to create repeatable and predictable processes for managing and recreating OpenShift Container Platform clusters and applications. By using GitOps, you can address the issues of infrastructure and application configuration sprawl. It simplifies the propagation of infrastructure and application configuration changes across multiple clusters by defining your infrastructure and applications definitions as “code.” Implementing GitOps for your cluster configuration files can make automated installation easier and allow you to configure automated cluster customizations. You can apply the core principles of developing and maintaining software in a Git repository to the creation and management of your cluster and application configuration files.

By using OpenShift Container Platform to automate both your cluster configuration and container development process, you can pick and choose where and when to adopt GitOps practices. Using a CI pipeline that pairs with your GitOps strategy and execution plan is ideal. OpenShift Container Platform provides the flexibility to choose when and how you integrate this methodology into your business practices and pipelines.

With GitOps integration, you can declaratively configure and store your OpenShift Container Platform cluster configuration

GitOps works well with OpenShift Container Platform because you can both declaratively configure clusters and store the state of the cluster configuration in Git. For more information, see Available cluster customizations.

ArgoCD is a declarative continuous delivery tool that leverages GitOps to maintain cluster resources. ArgoCD is implemented as a controller that continuously monitors application definitions and configurations defined in a Git repository and compares the specified state of those configurations with their live state on the cluster. Configurations that deviate from their specified state in the Git repository are classified as OutOfSync. ArgoCD reports these differences and allows administrators to automatically or manually resync configurations to the defined state.

ArgoCD enables you to deliver global custom resources, like the resources that are used to configure OpenShift Container Platform clusters.

Red Hat does not provide support for this tool. To obtain support for ArgoCD, see Support in the ArgoCD documentation.

For more information about using ArgoCD, see the ArgoCD documentation.

Admission plug-ins are used to help regulate how OpenShift Container Platform 4.6 functions. Admission plug-ins intercept requests to the master API to validate resource requests and ensure policies are adhered to, after the request is authenticated and authorized. For example, they are commonly used to enforce security policy, resource limitations or configuration requirements.

Admission plug-ins run in sequence as an admission chain. If any admission plug-in in the sequence rejects a request, the whole chain is aborted and an error is returned.

OpenShift Container Platform has a default set of admission plug-ins enabled for each resource type. These are required for proper functioning of the cluster. Admission plug-ins ignore resources that they are not responsible for.

In addition to the defaults, the admission chain can be extended dynamically through webhook admission plug-ins that call out to custom webhook servers. There are two types of webhook admission plug-ins: a mutating admission plug-in and a validating admission plug-in. The mutating admission plug-in runs first and can both modify resources and validate requests. The validating admission plug-in validates requests and runs after the mutating admission plug-in so that modifications triggered by the mutating admission plug-in can also be validated.

Calling webhook servers through a mutating admission plug-in can produce side effects on resources related to the target object. In such situations, you must take steps to validate that the end result is as expected.

Default validating and admission plug-ins are enabled in OpenShift Container Platform 4.6. These default plug-ins contribute to fundamental control plane functionality, such as ingress policy, cluster resource limit override and quota policy. The following lists contain the default admission plug-ins:

In addition to OpenShift Container Platform default admission plug-ins, dynamic admission can be implemented through webhook admission plug-ins that call webhook servers, in order to extend the functionality of the admission chain. Webhook servers are called over HTTP at defined endpoints.

There are two types of webhook admission plug-ins in OpenShift Container Platform:

When an API request comes in, mutating or validating admission plug-ins use the list of external webhooks in the configuration and call them in parallel:

Communication between the webhook admission plug-in and the webhook server must use TLS. Generate a CA certificate and use the certificate to sign the server certificate that is used by your webhook admission server. The PEM-encoded CA certificate is supplied to the webhook admission plug-in using a mechanism, such as service serving certificate secrets.

The following diagram illustrates the sequential admission chain process within which multiple webhook servers are called.

Figure 9.1. API admission chain with mutating and validating admission plug-ins

An example webhook admission plug-in use case is where all pods must have a common set of labels. In this example, the mutating admission plug-in can inject labels and the validating admission plug-in can check that labels are as expected. OpenShift Container Platform would subsequently schedule pods that include required labels and reject those that do not.

Some common webhook admission plug-in use cases include:

Cluster administrators can call out to webhook servers through the mutating admission plug-in or the validating admission plug-in in the API server admission chain.

apiVersion: admissionregistration.k8s.io/v1beta1
kind: MutatingWebhookConfiguration 1
metadata:
  name: <webhook_name> 2
webhooks:
- name: <webhook_name> 3
  clientConfig: 4
    service:
      namespace: default 5
      name: kubernetes 6
      path: <webhook_url> 7
    caBundle: <ca_signing_certificate> 8
  rules: 9
  - operations: 10
    - <operation>
    apiGroups:
    - ""
    apiVersions:
    - "*"
    resources:
    - <resource>
  failurePolicy: <policy> 11
  sideEffects: None

apiVersion: admissionregistration.k8s.io/v1beta1
kind: ValidatingWebhookConfiguration 1
metadata:
  name: <webhook_name> 2
webhooks:
- name: <webhook_name> 3
  clientConfig: 4
    service:
      namespace: default  5
      name: kubernetes 6
      path: <webhook_url> 7
    caBundle: <ca_signing_certificate> 8
  rules: 9
  - operations: 10
    - <operation>
    apiGroups:
    - ""
    apiVersions:
    - "*"
    resources:
    - <resource>
  failurePolicy: <policy> 11
  sideEffects: Unknown

This procedure outlines high-level steps to configure dynamic admission. The functionality of the admission chain is extended by configuring a webhook admission plug-in to call out to a webhook server.

The webhook server is also configured as an aggregated API server. This allows other OpenShift Container Platform components to communicate with the webhook using internal credentials and facilitates testing using the oc command. Additionally, this enables role based access control (RBAC) into the webhook and prevents token information from other API servers from being disclosed to the webhook.